WII in the Field

Stress level in wild animals in presence of humans and human induced factors:  A short review

 - A.K. Nayak

This review summarizes the findings of the studies on level of stress on wild animals because of presence of human and human induced factors. There are ample studies to indicate that the stress level in wild animal do rise in presence of human. Nick Davis the renowned Behavioural Biologist has suggested that an increase in the number of visitors was associated with an increase in urinary cortisol in spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyii rufiventris). Cortisol is an effective marker for assessing physiological stress in captive animals. This result indicates that visitors can have a significant negative impact on physiology in spider monkeys.  Similarly, a study conducted on the behaviour of captive lion tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) housed in Indian Zoos found that visitors influenced the behaviour of captive lion-tailed macaques in a negative way. These studies suggest that human presence might adversely affect their welfare.  Early study carried out by Chamove in 1988 concluded that visitors can be a source of stress to animals in captivity. O. Donovan in 1993 observed that captive cheetahs utilized the posterior portion of their enclosure for resting during visitor days. Proximity to humans also has a profound influence on the social and reproductive behaviour of species such as cotton-topped tamarins. In social species, the disruption of behavioral pattern by increased human presence can affect their social structure and can have a considerable effect on population performance even if the disturbance does not directly impact survival and reproduction.

A reduction in resting behaviour due to human disturbance has also been observed in some studies.  Luseau in 2003 found that the bottlenose dolphins in New Zealand substantially decreased their resting and socializing bouts in the presence of boats. Duschene in 2000 reported that caribou were more vigilant in the presence of tourist and this resulted in a reduction of time spent resting and foraging. 

In a study on Amur tigers, Kerley and his associates in 2002 recorded a decrease in foraging efficiency by tigers when disturbed by human at the kills. Tigers that can remain at kill expended less energy than those that are disturbed. This can result in an increase in energetic demands because the tiger is forced to eat less from each kill, therefore,  would spend more time hunting and less time resting. Resting is a fundamentally important behavioural state to the health of many species of animal. It is known that the heartbeat frequency that affects metabolic rate is considerably lower when birds and mammals are resting than when they are active.  Birds and other mammal species show demonstrated physiological stress due to lack of rest.  Birds that are disturbed have a lower breeding success than undisturbed birds. Reduction in rest results in reduction of energy reserves, which could affect foraging efficiency, vigilance levels and parental care.

Taylor & Knight have observed that there was a negative relationship between wildlife body size and response while conducting study on responses of bison, mule deer and pronghorn antelope to mountain biking and hiking at Utah. Steidl & Anthony have found in 1996 that flush distance recorded for Bald Eagles was strongly associated with age and greatest for adults, least for juveniles and intermediate for sub-adults. Manor & Saltz have found a negative relationship between group size and human disturbance in respect of social ungulates like mountain gazelle.

Walker found in 2005 breeding adult Magellanic penguins, appear to habituate well to tourists, and breed in an area where about 70,000 people visit during the season. However, penguin chicks appear to show a heightened adrenocortical response to handling stress in nests exposed to tourists. Engelhard in 2002 found that alertness was raised threefold in the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) in the presence of people but quickly returned to pre-disturbance levels after their departure; there were no significant short-term effects on other behavioural variables. Tutin and Fernandez in 1991 found that the gorillas in general appear to habituate more readily than chimpanzees to the presence of human observers in wild populations when provisioning is not used. Thus, there are studies to indicate that certain species particularly primates show great flexibility and adaptability. The lesson from Gibraltar, Bali and India would seem to be that close proximity between human and non-human primates need not be stressful for either. But levels of visitor-directed aggression are found high at a tourist temple near Bali, where tourist guides acted aggressively towards them.

Captive environments are bound to cause abnormal behaviours that are rarely seen in wild environments such as regurgitation and re-ingestion in gorillas, stereotyped body rocking in chimpanzees and predation by woolly monkeys & lemurs. Different species are likely to respond in different ways, so we should not expect a uniform response pattern to human presence across all the species. It is quite probable that the animal behavior under stress is affected not by a single variable but by a number of independent variables acting together. Therefore, it is really difficult to compare and assess the stress level of wild animals in a scale of commensality with human beings. However, from all these studies, some tentative conclusions can be drawn, which may be regarded as working hypotheses. More studies are required to firmly establish these. In conclusion, it may be said:

1.  Animal species respond to humans in different ways indicating varying social organizations and different species specific responses to environmental events.

2.  Both captive and non-captive primates appear to habituate to humans they encounter regularly. The extent of this habituation may also depend as much on species specific response patterns as on the amount of exposure.

3.  Species with different ranging patterns in the wild will have different responses to restricted space as appears to be the case in carnivores. The more the range in the wild, the higher will be the stress level. Contact: anup@wii. gov.in

A Trek to Mandani and Kham Bugyals of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary - Gajendra Singh

There are some moments in life so special that every one wants to catch and pursue. The late autumn of 2006 which I spent in Bugyals (high altitude meadows) of Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary in Garhwal Himalaya provided series of such moments. It was my maiden trek in which I was leading the team. In the past, most of the treks that I had done in the alpine region were with Dr. G. S. Rawat. Although I missed many things in the field in absence of Dr. Rawat but this was the time to check my experience, which I gained from the previous treks.

I reached village Ransi (2000 m.) located on the left bank of Madmaheshwar Ganga on 26th September. This is the last village on way to Kedarnath through Mandani and Kham Bugyals. Here, I met my field guide Umed Singh, who has good experience of trekking in the Himalaya and he has been working with the WII’s researchers as a field assistant in various projects since 1996. I spent the next day at the village to make preparations and consultation with the elderly persons about the route, past and present scenario of the area. As the journey was going to be very tough and long, we decided to keep only three member team (including myself).

Mandani valley: dominated by Danthonia & Kobresia species

Kham valley: heavily grazed by livestock

Thauli Bugyal: High altitude MAP’s rich habitat

After packing of all the necessary things (food, tent, warm clothes) for a week, we left Ransi on 28th September. Initial climb to a place called Patudi was about 10-15 km. As elsewhere in the Western Himalaya, the village fringes showed signs of high anthropogenic pressure, most of the oak trees were heavily lopped for fodder, fuel and timber. The understory was dominated by the unpalatable and thorny species such as Principia utilis, Berberis asiatica, Urtica parviflora and many fern species. Interestingly, after 3-4 km walk far from the village fringes we found dense, undisturbed natural forest dominated by the Rhododendron arbreum and Quercus species. I was expecting seasonal cattle settlements, Gujjars or Gaddies (migratory shepherd) camps, resultant degradation in this area. Our guide told us that Gujjars and Gaddies were denied entry to this area by the villagers 4-5 years ago and the forest were rapidly recovering. This raised my hopes to see relatively undisturbed Bugyals. We walked for another 5-6 hours through the dense forest and reached near tree line. What impressed us here most was a beautiful grove of Bhojpatra (Betula utilis) with Rhododendron campanulatum which seemed to be an ideal habitat for Himalayan musk deer. Here we were welcomed by the familiar and pleasing calls of Himalayan Monal the state bird of Uttaranchal. We reached Patudi (3400 m asl) our first day’s destination an hour before the sun set. This is one of the most popular localities in the area as it forms the gateway to all other major Bugyals of the region. We settled down for the evening in a cave to avoid unpacking and packing of tent and rather save some time to exploring the area.

The next day began with a wonderful morning chorus of birdcalls all around our camp. We left the camp after light breakfast and heavy pack lunch. We were to reach Mandani Bugyal that day. Flowering in the alpine meadows was near to over when we reached there. However, we noted the ground vegetation of the region and made a checklist of the plants. Despite heavy livestock grazing (over 500 sheep/goats throughout the summer) and human pressure (fuel collection by tourist and shepherd), Patudi has retained its moderate vegetation.

Brahm Kamal Saussurea obvallata

After walking for about 5 hours from Patudi along a ridge, we reached one of the major bugyals of the region called Thauli (3995m asl) which lies on the base of Chaukhamba peak. This area seems an ideal habitat for Himalayan Tahr. Surely enough, we encountered a group of 12 Tahrs in the adjoining slope, which was laden with Danthonia and Kobresia species. This area is used by the local herb collectors due to its easy access from near by villages. Having finished our lunch at Thauli, we climbed a higher pass (Dwara Khal, 4224m asl) that leads to Mandani Valley. As we reached the pass, all our fatigue had vanished for the view infront was absolutely breath taking. The opposite slope is known as “Swarg Rohini” (ascent to heaven). True to its name, I could help offering silent prayer and then loudly uttering “You are beyond praise!!” From this pass, we were able to see more than half of the Mandani valley and a number of snow peaks all around. We entered the valley leaving behind beds of Braham Kamal (Saussurea obvallata). To explore the area as much as possible, we decided to avoid going to Mandani and stayed at a nearby camping site (Dagla) that day.  

Kedarnath temple: First among the holy ‘Panch kedars’

Mandani is about 8 km from Dagla camp. This area lies in the basin of Mandani Parbat and lie in the upper catchments of Mandani Ganga (a tributary of river Mandakini) and is famous for its picturesque landscape. Valley bottom of Mandani (3596m) is flat and differentiated in to different bugyal formations such as, marsh meadows, Kobresia meadows, mixed herbaceous formations. The north-facing slopes along the Mandani Ganga were mainly dominated by Rhododendron species among the shrub, and the meadows were rich in endangered medicinal species of Aconites. On these slopes we found plenty of feeding evidences of Himalayan Monal. We carried out sampling of vegetation estimation for species wise at different communities and prepared a list of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) of the area. Unlike other bugyals of Western Himalaya this area exhibit a complex patchwork of herbaceous formations in a small region. Some pockets were dominated by Danthonia species; some were by Kobresia species and others with mixed forbs. Our guide, who had been visiting this place since 1988 told us that he did not notice any changes in these patches over the years. Therefore these meadows are blessed for having great profusion and diversity of beautiful flowers. Sadly many of the herbs in these meadows are much prized for their medicinal properties and they are extracted for commercial purpose. In the past collection of these medicinal plants were in small quantities for their use by the local people, but recently better communications and a fashion for natural medicines have made the collection of medicinal plants a lucrative trade, drawing in outsiders and giving an incentive for harvesting on an unsustainable scale.

In the valley bottom, we found signs of heavy digging for Atees (Aconitum heterophyllum). Such uncontrolled extraction of medicinal plants not only affects the population of these medicinal species but also affect the population of other species and structure of grassy meadows.

After spending more than one and half days in Mandani Bugyal, we resumed our trek to Kham bugyal. This route was more adventurous steeper and there were no clear trails. It was possible to complete only because of our able guide. About 18-20 km walk from Mandani to Kham, passed through steep slopes dominated by Danthonia and Kobresia species with patches of Juniperus, we reached a popular place called Simtoli. Due to its inaccessibility, this region was untouched by the sheep and goats.  A few moist bouldery slopes were laden with Brahm Kamal.

After a walk of 2 km from Simtoli, we reached Kham which is located in the basin of Mahapanth Sarowar (upper catchments of the Kali Ganga). This area had good population of Mitha Jahar (Aconitum ferox). In terms of pasture size and easy livestock grazing, Kham (3790m asl) is highly preferred by the pastoral communities. It is adjacent to Kedarnath valley and easily accessible from that side too. Hence this place is highly preferred as pasture for horses and mules. Valley bottom has become compact, full of species like Trachydium roylei and Carex spp., due to heavy grazing by the horses and sheep/goats. According to local informants, around 7000 horses (two months) and 1800 sheep/ goats (four months) stay here during summer. 

About 3-4 hour walk from Kham through Hathini Parbat led us in the famous Kedarnath valley in the western part of the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary. Hathini Parbat, which connects the Kedarnath temple to Kham, is steep and supports quite a few MAPs. Towards Kedarnath (S-W facing slopes) this area supports Brahm kamal at higher altitude, but at lower altitude where high grazing and anthropogenic pressure and tourism is present, only unpalatable and thorny shrub species were present.

Kedarnath is the first among the Holy ‘Panch (five) Kedars’ of Uttarakhand, the other four being Madmaheshwar, Tungnath, Rudranath and Kalpeshwar. Mandakini river has its origin from Kedarnath glacier and meets Alaknanda at Rudraprayag. After taking some rest at the temple and exchange of words with other “kedarnath ki Jai”, we took the last lap of trek towards Gaurikund.

As I retrace my steps to Gaurikund I thanked both  my teammates  and tell myself, I want to return here again- I will return again to these enchanting meadows and abode of Lord Shiv. Contact: gajendra@wii.gov.in

Vanishing Orchid Wealth of Gori Valley - Jeewan S. Jalal

Gori valley (approx. 2230 sq. km) is located on the eastern flank of Kumaun, bordered in the north by the Tibetan plateau and in the south-east by Nepal. The world famous snow-clad Panchachuli groups of peaks on the northern side flag their existence over a 100 km long valley. A tributary of the mighty river Kali, the Goriganga, cascades through the sheer valley gorges forming moist riparian habitats, most favourable for the orchids. Complex interplay of geology and climate have contributed to the evolution of diverse life-zones in its subtropical as well as alpine areas which harbour a large number of orchid species and other floral and faunal groups. So far, 121 orchids have been discovered through botanical explorations comprising 78 epiphytic, 42 terrestrial and one saprophytic. Among the most abundant genus, Bulbophyllum (14 spp.), Dendrobium (10 spp.) and Habenaria (9 spp.) are the characteristic. Species which are only found here (endemic species) are Bulbophyllum reptans var. acuta, Corallorhiza trifida, Dendrobium normale, Eria occidentalis, Eria reticosa, Eulophia ucbii, Flickingeria hesperis, Gastrochilus acutifolius, Herminium mackinnonii and Nervillia mackinnonii. Fifty percent of orchids of the entire Western Himalaya are found in this valley alone. Therefore, Gori valley symbolizes as an orchid hotspot in the Western Himalaya. 

Aerides odorata

Bulbopyhllum umbellatum

Toona serrata loaded with epiphytic orchids

Orchids are distributed throughout the valley from subtropical to alpine region, but the maximum concentration of orchids is in the lower Gori valley. The epiphytic orchids mainly occur between Jauljibi and Madkote. However, in this stretch too, there are certain localities that are very rich e.g., Lumti, Ghosigad and Baram. The warm and humid conditions prevalent in the lower parts of the valley provides suitable environment for growth of epiphytic orchids. Epiphytic orchids prefer many of the existing tree species such as Tun, Mahuwa, Banj, oak and Mango as a substratum for growth which explains why these trees are seen heavily loaded with colorful orchids during the June to August period in the riverine area and in the adjoining cultivated fields. We have encountered as many as 27 epiphytic orchids on a single Tun tree (Toona ciliata).

As compared to ephiphytic orchids, terrestrial orchids mainly grow in the temperate grassy slopes and the alpine areas. The alpine pastures and grassy slopes provide excellent habitats for terrestrial orchids viz.  Salam panja (Dactylorhiza hatagirea), Salam misri (Satyrium neplaense), Herminium monorchis, Cyperpidium elegans a rare orchids, Malaxis acuminata and Habenaria intermedia.

Today Gori Valley is subjected to tremendous pressure due to developmental projects such as construction of motor roads and hydro-electric projects. The human population in the valley has been on constant increase, which have led to depletion of riverine forests. As a result, many species have become rare and endangered and are restricted to a few specialized habitats. Lopping of the host species for fodder, fuelwood and timber for building purposes has brought more than 36 species into critically endangered status. The alpine areas are under tremendous pressure due to increasing livestock grazing and collection of highly valued medicinal and aromatic plants. The upper valley, Salam Panja is commercially exploited by the local people. South-east Asian countries, especially Thailand, and several private orchid growers in north-east and south India are earning enormous revenue through the sale of commercial orchids. On the other hand the local communities in the Gori valley are unaware of the treasure they hold in their surroundings. Several botanists and conservationists have recognized Gori valley as an important orchid hotspot but no action has been taken towards conservation so far.  

Dendrobium amoneum	Kingidium taenialis

The best strategy to secure conservation in this remote but biologically rich area is, firstly, to educate the local communities about the significance of the orchids and secondly, help them in protecting and managing their natural resources.  There exists a provision for establishing Conservation Reserve as per the new Wildlife (Protection) Act. The area around Ghosi Gar and parts of riverine tract along Gori could be declared as Conservation Reserve in order to conserve the orchids and their habitats. Establishment of orchid gene bank and gathering of related data from propagation trials of rare and endemic species can reverse the process of extinction for several species. Inputs from the botanists, forest department and other conservation organizations would be crucial in bringing this valley to the fore of participatory conservation programme so that the beauty of Mother Nature can be retained and all the citizens of this country can take pride in our heritage. Contact: jeewan@wii.gov.in